COMMUNICATION AND POWER

SYNOPSIS

In this channel, tagged by a Filmora watermark, the subject of discussion is communication and power within the travel, tourism and hospitality industry. The notes are reproduced after the link.

Communication

OBJECTIVES

•   Define communication.
•  Describe the various steps in the communication process.
• Distinguish between different forms of verbal media and their relative effectiveness. 
•    Identify the types of formal messages that flow in different directions within an organization chart.
•  Describe how informal communication is different than formal communication in an organization.
•  Identify various methods for improving organizational communication.
•   Define power.
•   Identify the four main types of position power and the four main types of personal power.

INTRODUCTION

One of the main characteristics of behavior in organizations is that it involves the interrelationships between people. Employees do not work in a vacuum. Even security guards assigned to remote outposts eventually must have contact with others in their organization. When it comes to the world of work, the old adage, "no man is an island," is most certainly true.

THE BASIC NATURE OF COMMUNICATION

Communication is the key to good coordination between people. Without it, organizations would not be able to operate effectively.

Communication is "the social glue ... that continues to keep organizations tied together".

THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

The process of communication consists of the following steps, namely,

Encoding- The communication process begins when one party has an idea that it wishes to send to another. It is the sender's mission to transform the idea into a form that can be sent to and understood by the receiver.

Encoding is the translation of an idea into a form, such as written or spoken language, that can be recognized by a receiver.

Transmission via communication channels- After a message is encoded, it is ready to be transmitted over one or more channels of communication to reach the desired receiver. There are many different pathways through which information travels, including telephone lines, radio and television signals, fiber-optic cables, mail routes, and even the airwaves that carry our voices.

Decoding- Once a message is received, the recipient begins the process of decoding – that is, converting the message back to the sender’s original form. This can involve many different processes, such as comprehending spoken and written words or interpreting facial expressions.

Feedback- Once a message has been decoded, the process of communication can continue if the receiver responds with a message to the sender. In other words, the person receiving the message now becomes the sender of a new message. This new message is then encoded and transmitted along a communication channel to the intended recipient, who then decodes it. This part of the communication process is known as feedback.

Noise- As it may be inferred, there are many potential barriers to effective communication. Noise refers to the factors that distort the clarity of messages that are encoded, transmitted, and decoded in the communication process.

VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Verbal communication involves transmitting and receiving ideas using words. It can be either oral, using spoken language (e.g., face-to-face talks, telephone conversations) or written (e.g., memos, letters, e-mail messages).

Written communication is often best expressed when the message is routine and impersonal.

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

Nonverbal communication is the transmission of messages or signals through a nonverbal platform such as eye contact, facial expressions, gestures, posture, and the distance between two individuals. This form of communication is characterized by multiple channels and scholars argue that nonverbal communication can convey more meaning than verbal communication.

FORMAL AND INFORMAL COMMUNICATION

Compare the following two situations:

(1) The CEO of a large conglomerate announces plans for new products to a group of stockholders.

(2) One day in the lunchroom two administrative assistants share the latest stories about someone who has been terminated.

The first example describes a situation in which someone is sharing official information with others who need to know this information. This is referred to as formal communication. The second situation, however, involves the sharing of unofficial information about what is going on in the organization. This is referred to as informal communication.

Formal Communication: Messages Directed Through Organizational Structure

Organizations are often described in ways that dictate who may and may not communicate with whom. The formally prescribed pattern of interrelationships existing between the various units of an organization is referred to as organizational structure.

An organization's structure is commonly described by using a diagram known as an organization chart. Such diagrams provide a graphic representation of an organization's structure, an outline of the planned, formal connections between its various units. An organization chart revealing the structure of a small part of a fictitious organization, and an overview of the types of communication expected to occur within it, is shown in Exhibit 3.

THE ORGANIZATIONAL CHART

The organizational chart indicates the formal pattern of communication within an organization – that is, which individuals are required to communicate with each other. The types of messages that tend to be communicated across different levels are identified here.

When looking at an organization chart you immediately notice several boxes connected by lines. Each box represents a particular job, as indicated by the job titles noted. The lines connecting the boxes show the formal lines of communication between the individuals performing those jobs—that is, who is supposed to communicate with whom.

Downward Communication

To answer this question, suppose that you are a supervisor. How would you characterize the formal communication that occurs between you and your subordinates—that is, communication down the organization chart? Typically, downward communication consists of instructions, directions and orders—generally, messages that tell subordinates what they should be doing.

Upward Communication

When information flows from lower levels to higher levels within an organization, such as messages from subordinates to their supervisors, it is known as upward communication. Typically, such messages involve information that managers need to do their jobs, such as data required to complete projects.

Horizontal Communication

Within organizations, messages do not only flow up and down the organization chart, but sideways as well. Horizontal communication is the term used to identify messages that flow laterally, at the same organizational level. Messages of this type are characterized by efforts at coordination, attempts to work together.

Vertical communication

Vertical communication in an organization is communication that flows up and down through the organization's hierarchical structure, from the general workforce up through middle management and higher management and back down again.

Informal Communication: Beyond the Organization Chart

It is probably obvious that a great deal of communication in organizations goes far beyond sending formal messages up, down, or across organization charts. To get a complete picture of organizational communication we also must pay attention to informal communication— information shared without any formally imposed obligations or restrictions.

STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVING ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION

Given how important it is for people in organizations to communicate with each other in a clear, open, and accurate fashion, it is worthwhile to consider ways of improving organizational communication.

Encourage Open Feedback. In theory, it is simple. If accurate information is the key to effective communication, then organizations should encourage feedback since, after all, feedback is a prime source of information. However, we say "in theory" because it is natural for workers to be afraid of the repercussions they may face when being extremely open with their superiors.

Likewise, high-ranking officials may be somewhat apprehensive about hearing what's really on their workers' minds.

FEEDBACK CHANNELS

360-degree feedback—Formal systems in which people at all levels give feedback to others at different levels and receive feedback from them, as well as outsiders—including customers and suppliers. This technique is used in such companies as Alcoa, General Mills, Hewlett-Packard, Merck, Motorola, and 3M.

Suggestion systems—Programs that invite employees to submit ideas about how something may be improved. Employees are generally rewarded when their ideas are implemented.

Corporate hotlines—Telephone lines staffed by corporate officials ready to answer questions and listen to comments. These are particularly useful during times when employees are likely to be full of questions because their organizations are undergoing change.

Use Simple Language. No matter what field one is in, chances are good that it has its own special language—also known as jargon. Although jargon may greatly help communication within specialized groups, it can severely interfere with communication among the uninitiated.

The advice is clear: Follow the K.I.S.S. principle—that is, keep it short and sweet.

Avoid Overload. Imagine this scene: You're up late one night at the end of the term as you're writing a paper and studying for finals (or at least trying to) all at the same time. Your desk is piled high with books when your roommate comes in to explain what you should do to prepare for the end-of-semester party.

Rely on gatekeepers. People whose jobs require them to control the flow of information to potentially overloaded individuals, groups, or organizations are known as gatekeepers. In making appointments for top executives, administrative assistants are providing a gatekeeping service.

Practice queuing. A "queue" is a line. So, queuing involves lining up incoming information so that it can be attended to in an orderly fashion. Air traffic controllers do this when they "stack" incoming planes in a holding pattern so as to prevent them from tragically "overloading" the runway.

Walk the Talk. One of the most effective ways of fostering effective organizational communication is for CEOs to "walk the talk" that is, to match their deeds to their words. Good communication demands consistency. And, for the words to be heard as loud as the actions, they must match up.

Be a Good Listener. Effective communication involves more than just presenting messages clearly. It also involves doing a good job of comprehending others. Although most of us take listening for granted, effective listening is an important skill.

POSITION POWER

There are four bases of position power: legitimate power, reward power, coercive power, and information power.

Legitimate Power. The power that someone has because others recognize and accept his or her authority is known as legitimate power. Let's consider an example to which all students can easily relate. You recognize that your instructors have the authority to make class policies and to determine grades. In other words, they have legitimate power over the class.

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Reward Power. Associated with holding certain jobs comes the power to control the rewards others receive.

Coercive Power. In contrast, power also results from the capacity to control punishment. This is known as coercive power. Although most managers do not like using the threat of punishments, it is a fact of organizational life that many people rely on coercion.

In private organizations too, threats of demotions, suspensions without pay, and assignments to undesirable duties may enhance the coercive power of many managers.

Information Power. The fourth source of power available to people by virtue of their positions is based on the data and other knowledge at their disposal. This is known as information power. Traditionally, people in top positions have available to them unique sources of information that are not available to others (e.g., knowledge of company performance, market trends, and so on).

As they say, "knowledge is power," and such information greatly contributes to the power of people in many jobs.

PERSONAL POWER

People also derive power from their own unique qualities or characteristics. This is known as personal power. There are four sources of personal power: rational persuasion, expert power, referent power, and charisma.

Rational Persuasion. Suppose you are chair of the board of a large high-tech company. Based on your business flare, you do not like what you see when you look into the future. Some of your products are doing well, but others are faltering. Something has to be done. You see the need to invest in several new products which hold the key to the company's success—indeed, its survival. How do you go about convincing the company's other directors and its Chief Operating Officer to move in the direction you favor? People facing such situations tend to rely on rational persuasion – that is, using logical arguments and factual evidence to convince others that a certain idea is acceptable.

Expert Power. Returning to our example, it's easy to imagine that as chair of the board you have considerable expertise in the business—and, that everyone around you knows and appreciates this. As such, it also may be said that you possess expert power—that is, power based on recognized superior knowledge of a particular field. Athletic coaches may be considered a good example of people with expert power.

Referent Power. Individuals who are liked and respected can get others to go along with them simply because of a type of influence known as referent power.

Charisma. Finally, some people are liked so much by others that they are said to have the quality of charisma—an engaging and magnetic personality. There's no ignoring the fact that some people become highly influential because of their charismatic ways – that is, because of how they inspire others to do things.

What makes such individuals so influential? Four major factors appear to be involved.

a)    Highly charismatic people have definite visions of the future of their organizations and how to bring them to reality. Mary Kay Ash, the founder of Mary Kay Cosmetics, for example, is widely regarded to be such a visionary.

b)    People with charisma tend to be excellent communicators. In fact, they tend to rely on colorful language and exciting metaphors to excite the crowd.

c)    Charismatic individuals inspire trust. Their integrity is never challenged, and is a source of their strength. Former U.S. President John F. Kennedy has been so described by many historians.

d)    People with charisma make others feel good about themselves.